Hide and seek with falsified medicines: current challenges and physico-chemical and biological approaches for tracing the origin of trafficked products

The criminal trafficking of falsified medical products is a worldwide, yet still largely overlooked, public health problem. A falsified medicine fraudulently misrepresents its identity, composition and/or source, often being ineffective or toxic for patients. Although techniques have been developed to detect falsified medicines, it remains a challenge to trace where- and by whom- the products are manufactured. We aim to discuss plausible biological and physico-chemical analytical techniques that could reveal information about the origin of medical falsifications. We first provide a brief overview on the prevalence, criminal activities, health impacts and (bio)chemical features of falsified medical products. We then explore diverse laboratory approaches, that are used in food fraud, illicit drug and wildlife trafficking investigations, and discuss how they could be combined and redirected towards tracing falsified medicine origin and hence empowering enforcement to counter this pernicious but neglected global health problem.